Integrating biological pest management, drought resilience, and elephant deterrence for sustainable small scale cardamom production

Bio‑intensive integrated pest management (IPM) integrates ecological and economic considerations into the design and decision‑making of agricultural systems, addressing public concerns regarding environmental quality and food safety. Implementing such approaches in small‑scale cardamom plantations can lower chemical input expenses, diminish on‑farm and off‑farm ecological footprints, and provide more effective, sustainable pest control. A field trial conducted from 2021 to 2023 evaluated several bio‑intensive modules aimed at managing pests, drought, and wild‑elephant crop raiding in cardamom. Results indicated that a combined formulation of Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus thuringiensis (including the kurstaki strain) effectively suppressed stem, panicle, and capsule borers while remaining safe to the larval parasitoids Apanteles taragamae and Friona spp., making it suitable for inclusion in cardamom IPM programs. Soil‑applied fungal granules significantly reduced thrips‑induced capsule damage compared with the untreated control, whereas foliar sprays of the same fungus were ineffective. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) offer a cost‑effective, value‑added tool for promoting sustainable cardamom agriculture. Additionally, plant‑growth‑promoting microbial formulations (PPFM) can be leveraged for eco‑friendly, economical practices that support sustainable cardamom production.